Iraq - REFERENCE

Iraq - Appendix

Iraq

Table 1. Metric Conversion Coofficients and Factors">

When you kow Multiply by To find

Millimeters 0.04 inches

Centimeters 0.39 inches

Meters 3.3 feet

Kilometers 0.62 miles

Hectares 2.47 acres

Square kilometers 0.39 square miles

Cubic meters 35.3 cubic feet

Liters 0.26 gallons

Kilograms 2.2 pounds

Metric tons 0.98 long tons

1.1 short tons

2,204 pounds

Degrees Celsius (Centigrade) 1.8 and add 32 degrees Fahrenheit

Table 2. Population Distribution by Governorate, 1987">
(in thousands)

Administrative Division Female Male Urban Rural Total

Governorate

Al Anbar 390 428 538 280 818

Al Basrah 438 434 782 90 872

Al Muthanna 160 153 163 150 313

Al Q adisiyah 280 281 321 240 561

An Najaf 362 361 568 155 723

At Tamim 255 338 473 120 593

Babylon 557 552 669 440 1,109

Baghdad 1,890 1,955 3,600 245 3,845

Dhi Qar 445 473 468 450 918

Diyala 445 455 465 435 900

Karbala 229 227 341 115 456

Maysan 244 256 275 225 500

Nineveh 745 762 982 525 1,507¹

Salah ad Din 350 374 400 324 724

Wasit 225 235 260 200 460

Autonomous Region²

As Sulaymaniyah 433 510 543 400 943

Dahuk 125 168 160 133 293

Irbil 340 403 475 268 743

TOTAL 7,913¹ 8,365¹ 11,483 4,795 16,278¹

¹ From October 17, 1987, census; remaining figures are estimates.
² See Glossary.
Source: Based on information from Joint Publications Research Service, Daily Report: Near East and South Asia, October 20, 1987, 22, and October 21, 1987, 25.

Table 3. Area and Population Density, 1987">

Administrative Division Land Area (in square kilometers)1 Population (in thousands) Density (persons per square kilometer

Governorate

Al Anbar 137,723 818 5.9

Al Basrah 19,070 872 45.7

Al Muthanna 51,029 313 6.1

Al Qadisiyah 8,507 561 65.9

An Najaf 27,844 723 26.0

At Tamim 10,391 593 57.1

Babylon 5,258 1,109² 210.9

Baghdad 5,159 3,845² 745.3

Dhi Qar 13,626 918 67.4

Diyala 19,292 900 46.7

Karbala 5,034 456 90.6

Maysan 14,103 500 35.5

Nineveh 37,698 1,507² 40.0

Salah ad Din 29,004 724 25.0

Wasit 17,308 460 26.6

Autonomous Region³

As Sulaymaniyah 15,756 943 59.9

Dahuk 6,120 293 47.9

Irbil 14,471 743 51.3

TOTAL 437,393 16,278² 37.2

¹ From Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1985.
² From October 17, 1987, census; remaining figures are estimates.
³ See Glossary.
Source: Based on information from Iraq, Ministry of Planning, Central Statistical Organization, Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1985, Baghdad, n.d., 10; and Joint Publications Research Service, Daily Report: Near East and South Asia, October 20, 1987, 22 and October 21, 1987, 25.

Table 4. Teachers, Students, and Schools
School Years 1976-77 to 1985-86, Selected Years">

Level Number of Teachers Number of Students Total Students Number of Schools

Male Female

Kindergarten

1976-77 2,291 24,223 27,617 51,840 276

1979-80 3,079 33,156 47,262 80,418 358

1982-83 4,175 38,137 41,319 79,456 507

1985-86 4,657 38,604 42,827 81,431 584

Primary

1976-77 70,799 687,220 1,259,962 1,947,182 8,156

1979-80 92,644 1,174,866 1,434,067 2,608,933 11,316

1982-83 107,364 1,214,410 1,400,517 2,614,927 10,223

1985-86 118,492 1,258,434 1,554,082 2,812,516 8,127

Secondary

1976-77 19,471 164,442 387,600 552,042 1,319

1979-80 28,002 271,112 626,588 897,700 1,774

1982-83 32,556 334,897 636,930 971,827 1,977

1985-86 35,051 371,214 660,346 1,031,560 2,238

Vocational¹

1976-77 1,906 n.a. n.a. 28,365 82

1979-80 3,928 n.a. n.a. 4,026 126

1982-83 4,733 n.a. n.a. 61,383 157

1985-86 6,405 31,252 88,838 120,090 237

Teacher Training Schools²

1977-78 666 12,685 4,652 17,337 32

1982-83 1,022 15,936 10,255 26,191 36

1985-86 209 3,355 2,928 6,283 7

Teacher Training Institutes³

1977-78 241 3,233 3,019 6,252 13

1982-83 219 3,286 3,197 6,483 7

1985-86 1,202 16,820 11,083 27,903 37

University, College, or Technical Institutes⁴

1976-77 4,008 24,584 56,914 81,498 9

1979-80 5,680 9,298 21,884 31,182 9

1982-83 6,674 10,536 23,626 34,162 9

1985-86 7,616 17,015 36,022 53,037 9

¹ Includes commercial, technical, and agricultural schools.
² A three-year course for those who had completed intermediate studies.
³ A two-year course for secondary school graduates.
⁴ Includes Iraqi, other Arab, and foreign faculty and students at University of Baghdad, University of Basra, Foundation of Technical Institutes, University of Mosul, University of Al Mustansiriyah, University of Salah ad Din, University of Technology, and the religious colleges affiliated with the University of Baghdad and the University of Al Mustansiriyah.
Source: Based on information from Iraq, Ministry of Planning, Central Statistical Organization, Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1985, Baghdad, n.d., 203-33.

Table 5. Medical Personnel and Facilities, 1985">

Administrative Division Estimated Population (in thousands)1 Hospitals Hospital Beds Doctors Paramedics

Governorate

Al Anbar 818 11 825 206 523

Al Basrah 872 14 2,212 399 1,562

Al Muthanna 313 5 499 499 307

Al Qadisiyah 561 11 749 163 435

An Najaf 723 8 1,355 207 581

At Tamim 593 8 869 146 488

Babylon 1,109² 7 859 203 623

Baghdad 3,845² 41 10,006 2,145 4,535

Dhi Qar 918 15 1,102 160 600

Diyala 900 10 836 148 454

Karbala 456 4 488 118 287

Maysan 500 10 956 126 546

Nineveh 1,507² 21 2,223 498 1,011

Salah ad Din 724 6 775 125 403

Wasit 460 10 590 137 506

Autonomous Region³

As Sulaymaniyah 943 11 1,187 124 630

Dahuk 293 7 490 124 344

Irbil 743 17 1,684 196 848

TOTAL 16,278 216 27,705 5,724 14,683

¹ For 1987.
² From October 17, 1987, census.
³ See Glossary.
Source: Based on information from Iraq, Ministry of Planning, Central Statistical Organization, Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1985, Baghdad, n.d., 192-96; and Joint Publications Research Service, Daily Report: Near East and South Asia, October 20, 1987, 22 and October 21, 1987, 25.

Table 6. Crude Oil Production and Oil Revenues, 1982-87">

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

Production (in thousands of barrels per day) 972 922 1,203 1,437 1,746 2,076

Revenue (in millions of United States dollars) $10,250* $9,650* $10,000* $11,900* $6,813* $11,300*

Estimated.
Source: Based on information from Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, Economic and Energy Indicators, June 3, 1988, 9, and The Middle East and North Africa, 1989*, London: Europa, 1988, 475.

Table 7. Production and Area of Major Crops, Selected Years, 1981-85">

Production (in thousands of tons) Cultivated Area (in thousands of hectares)
Crop 1981 1983 1985 1981 1983 1985

Wheat 902 841 1,406 484.7 512.6 626.6

Barley 925 835 1,331 419.5 556.6 579.5

Rice 162 111 149 22.9 22.7 24.5

Cotton 13 12 7 4.5 5.5 4.3

Tobacco 12 14 17 4.8 5.8 6.6

Tomatoes 425 439 612 16.4 14.9 19.1

Eggplant 83 112 232 3.0 3.8 5.6

Watermelon 491 583 757 17.1 18.8 21.9

Source: Based on information from Iraq, Ministry of Planning, Central Statistical Organization, Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1985, Baghdad, n.d., 59-64.

Table 8. Principal Exports and Imports, 1984">

Exports (in millions of Iraqi dinars) Imports (in millions of Iraqi dinars)

Oil, gas and related products 7,028 Machinery, including aircraft 65,067

Foodstuffs 681 Manufactured goods 48,786

Raw materials (including fertilizers, cement) 287 Foodstuffs 43,828

Manufactured goods 241 Chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and explosives 17,225

Heating, medical equipment, furniture, and clothes 10,285

Other items 36 Other items 10,653

TOTAL 8,273 195,844

* For value of the Iraqi dinar--see Glossary.
Source: Based on information from Iraq, Ministry of Planning, Central Statistical Organization, Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1985, Baghdad, n.d., 164.

Table 9. Direction of Trade, 1985- 1986">
(in percentages)

Country 1985 1986

Exports

Brazil 17.7 n.a.

Britain n.a. 1.2

France 13.0 7.0

Italy 11.0 8.1

Japan 6.0 10.5

Spain 10.7 n.a.

Turkey 8.1 8.1

United States 4.7 5.8

West Germany n.a. 10.5

Yugoslavia 8.0 8.1

Imports

Brazil 7.0 n.a.

Britain 6.3 8.0

France 7.5 6.8

Italy 7.6 8.0

Japan 14.4 14.8

Kuwait 4.2 n.a.

Turkey 8.2 9.0

United States n.a. 5.7

West Germany 9.2 8.0

Yugoslavia n.a. 4.5

n.a. -- not available.
Source: Based on information from the International Monetary Fund, Direction of Trade Statistics, cited in the Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Iraq, No. 1, 1987, 2 and No. 1, 1988, 2.

Table 10. Armed Forces Manpower, 1977- 87">

1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987

Armed Forces

Army 160,000 190,000 210,000¹ 475,000¹ 475,000¹ 475,000

Navy 3,000 4,000 4,250¹ 4,250¹ 5,000¹ 5,000¹

Air Force 15,000 18,000 28,000¹ 28,000¹ 30,000¹ 30,000

Air Defense 10,000 10,000 10,000¹ 10,000¹ 10,000¹ 10,000

TOTAL 188,000 222,000 252,250¹ 517,250¹,² 520,000¹ 520,000

Reserves 250,000 250,000 250,000 75,000 75,000 480,000

Paramilitary

People's Army 50,000 75,000 250,000³ 250,000 450,000 650,000

Security Forces 4,800 4,800 4,800 4,800 4,800 4,800

Frontier Guard - - - n.a. n.a. n.a.

n.a. --not available.
¹ Losses make estimates tentative
² In addition, 10,000 armed forces personnel from Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan served in Iraq.
³ 75,000 of these mobilized.

Table 11. Major Army Equipment, 1987"> ^*

Type Designation Inventory

Armored fighting vehicles

Heavy and medium tanks T-54, T-55, T- 62, T-72 2,790

T-59, T-69 II 1,500

Chieftain Mark 3\5, M-60, M- 47 150

M-77 60

Light tanks PT-76 100

TOTAL 4,600

Armored vehicles

Mechanized infantry combat vehicles BMP 1,000

Reconnaissance vehicles BRDM-2, FUG- 70, ERC-90, MOWAG Roland, EE-9 Cascavel, EE-3 Jararaca

Armored personnel carriers BTR-50, BTR-60, BTR-152, OT-62, OT-64, VC-TH (with HOT antitank guided weapons), M-113A1, Panhard M-3, EE-11 Urutu

TOTAL 4,000

Artillery Guns 122mm: D-74;

130mm: M-46, Type 59-1;

155mm: GCT self-propelled. 5

Guns\howitzers 152mm: M- 1937;

155mm: G-5, 40

GHN-45 40

Howitzers 105mm: M-56 pack;

122mm: D-30 towed, M-1938,

M-1974 (2S1);

152mm: M-1943, M-1973 (2S3) self- propelled;

155mm: M-114 M-109 self- propelled

TOTAL 3,000

Multiple rocket launchers Includes 122mm: BM-21 n.a.

127mm: ASTROS II 60

132mm: BM-13, BM-16 n.a.

TOTAL 200

Surface-to-surface missiles FROG- 7 30

Scud-B 20

TOTAL 50

Mortars 81mm; 120mm; 160mm n.a.

Antitank weapons

Recoilless rifles 73mm: SPG- 9

82mm: B-10

107mm n.a.

Guns 85mm; 100mm towed; 105mm: JPz 100

SK-105 self-propelled n.a.

Antitank guided weapons AT-3 Sagger (including BRDM-2) n.a.

AT-4 Spigot (reported), SS-11, Milan, HOT n.a.

Army Air Corps,

armed helicopters

Attack helicopters Mil Mi24 Hind, with AT-2 Swatter 40

SA-342 Gazelle (some with HOT) 50

SA-321 Super Frelon (some with Exocet AM-38 ASM) 10

SA-316B Alouette III, with AS-12 ASM 30

BO-105, with AS-11 antitank guided weapons 56

Hughes-530F 26

Hughes-500D 30

Hughes-300C 30

TOTAL 272

Transport helicopters

Heavy Mi-6 Hook 10

Medium Mi-8 100

Light Mi-4 20

SA-330 Puma 10

TOTAL 140

Air defense weapons

Guns 23mm: ZSU-23-4 self-propelled; 37mm: M-1939 and twin; 57mm: includes ZSU-57-2 self-propelled; 85mm; 100mm; 130mm

TOTAL 4,000

Surface-to-air missiles SA-2 120

SA-3, SA-6, SA-7, SA-9 150

Roland 60

TOTAL 300

n.a. --not available.
* Equipment estimates are tentative because of wartime losses.
Source: Based on information from International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, 1987-1988. London, 1987, 100.

Table 12. Major Navy Equipment, 1987">

Type and Description Inventory

Frigates 5

4 Lupo class with 8 Otomat-2 SSM, 1 X 8

Albatros/Aspide SAM, 1 helicopter (held in Italy)

1 Yug (training vessel)

Corvettes 6

Assad class, all with 1 X 4

Albatros/Aspide SAMs:

2 with 2 Otomat-2 SSMs, 1 helicopter;

4 with 6 Otomat-2 SSMs;

completed (all 6 held in Italy)

Fast-attack craft (missiles) OSA class, each with 4 Styx SSMs (6 of model II, 2 of model I), 8

Fast-attack craft (torpedoes) 4

P-6 (may not be operable)

Large patrol craft: SO-1 3

Coastal patrol craft: Zhuk (under 100 tons) 5

Minesweepers 8

2 Soviet T-43 (ocean);

3 Yevgenya (ocean); and

3 Nestin (inshore/river)

Amphibious 6

3 Polnocny (LSM¹)

3 modern cargo (LST²)

Support ships 5

1 Stromboli class

2 Poluchat torpedo support;

1 Agnadeen tanker; and 1 Transport

¹ Landing ship, medium.
² Landing ship tank.
Source: Based on information from International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, 1987-1988, London, 1987, 100.

Table 13. Major Air Force Equipment, 1987">

Type Designation Inventory

Bombers Tu-16 8

Tu-22 7

Fighters MiG-29 28

MiG-23BM 40

Mirage F-1C 40

Mirage F-1EQ5 (Exocet- equipped) 20

Mirage F-1EQ-200 23

F-7 (Chinese version of MiG-21 assembled in Egypt) 70

Su-7; Su-20 (Su-25 reported) n.a.

Interceptors MiG-25 25

MiG-21 200

MiG-19 40

Mirage F-1EQ 30

Reconnaissance MiG-25 5

Transport aircraft An-2 Colt 10

An-12 Cub 10

An-24 Coke (retiring) 6

An-26 Curl 2

Il-76 Candid 19

Il-14 Crate 19

DH Heron 1

Trainers MiG-15, MiG-21, MiG-23U, Su- 7U n.a.

Mirage F-1BQ 16

L-29 Delfin 50

L-39 Albatros 40

PC-7 Turbo Trainer 50

EMB-312 Tucano 21

Air-to-air missiles R-530 n.a.

R-550 Magic n.a.

AA-2, AA-6, AA-7, AA-8 n.a.

Air-to-surface missiles AS-30 Laser 200

Armat n.a.

Exocet AM-39 542

AS-4 Kitchen n.a.

AS-5 Kelt n.a.

n.a. --not available.
Source: Based on information from International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, 1987-1988, London: 1987, 100-1; The Military Balance, 1986-1987, London: 1986, 98; Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, World Armaments and Disarmament, SIPRI Yearbook 1987. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987, 250-53.

Iraq

Iraq - Bibliography

Iraq

Chapter 1

Abu Jaber, Kemal. The Arab Baath Socialist Party.
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Batatu, Hanna. The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary
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Dann, Uriel. Iraq Under Qassem 1958-63. New York:
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Davidson, Roderic H. Turkey. Englewood Cliffs, New
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Devlin, John. The Baath Party: A History from Its Origins to
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Gallman, Waldemar. Iraq Under General Nuri. Baltimore:
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Ghareeb, Edmund. The Kurdish Question in Iraq. Syracuse:
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Heller, Mark. "Politics and the Military in Iraq and Jordan 1920-
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Helms, Christine Moss. Iraq, Eastern Flank of the Arab
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Hitti, Philip K. Makers of Arab History. New York:
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------. The Near East in Hitory. Princeton, New Jersey:
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Hodgson, Marshall G.S. "How Did the Early Shia Become Sectarian?"
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Ireland, Philip. Iraq: A Study in Political Development.
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Issawi, Charles (ed.). The Economic History of the Middle
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Jawad, Saad. Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958-1970.
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Kedourie, Elie. "Continuity and Change in Modern Iraqi History,"
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Kelidar, Abbas. The Integration of Modern Iraq. New
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------. "Iraq: The Search for Stability," Conflict
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Kerr, Malcolm. The Arab Cold War. London: Oxford
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Khadduri, Majid. Republican Iraq. London: Oxford
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------. Socialist Iraq: A Study in Iraqi Politics Since
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Klieman, Aaron S. Foundations of British Policy in the World:
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Longrigg, Stephen Hemsley, and Frank Stoakes. Iraq
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Marr, Phebe. "Iraq's Leadership Dilemma: A Study in Leadership
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------. "The Political Elite in Iraq." Pages 109-49 in George
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Momen, Moojan. An Introduction to Shii Islam. New Haven:
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Niblock, Tim. Iraq: The Contemporary State. New York:
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Roberts, J.M. The Pelican History of the World. New
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Roux, George. Ancient Iraq. Cleveland: World Publishing,
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Seale, Patrick. The Struggle for Syria. New York: Oxford
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Shwadran, Benjamin. The Power Struggle in Iraq. New
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Sluglett, Peter. Britain in Iraq, 1914-1932. London:
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Sourdel, D. "The Abbasid Caliphate." Pages 104-39 in P.M. Holt,
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Stafford, R.S. The Tragedy of the Assyrians. London:
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Tarbush, Mohammad A. The Role of the Military in Politics: A
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Chapter 2

Adams, Doris Goodrich. Iraq's People and Resources
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Adams, Robert McCormick. Irrigation's Impact on Society.
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Alnasrawi, Abbas. Financing Economic Development in Iraq: The
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Arfa, Hassan. The Kurds: An Historical and Political
     Study. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.

Baali, Fuad. Relation of the People to the Land in Southern
     Iraq (University of Florida Monographs, Social
     Sciences, No. 31). Gainesville: University of Florida Press,
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------. "Relationships of Man to the Land in Iraq," Rural
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------. "Social Factors in Iraqi Rural-Urban Migrations,"
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Baram, Amitzia. "The June 1980 Election to the National Assembly
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Barth, Fredrik. Principles of Social Organization in Southern
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Batatu, Hanna. "Iraq's Underground Shia Movements:
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     Journal, 35, No. 4, Autumn 1981, 578-94.

------. The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary
     Movements of Iraq: A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and
     Commercial Classes, and of Its Communists, Bathists, and
     Free Officers. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
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Cook, M.A. (ed.) Studies in the Economic History of the
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Cordesman, Anthony H. The Iran-Iraq War: 1984-1986.
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Coulson, Noel, and Doreen Hinchcliffe. "Women and Law Reform in
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Dann, Uriel. Iraq Under Qassem, 1958-63. New York:
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Economist Intelligence Unit. Iraq: Country Report. (No.
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Fernea, Elizabeth W. Guests of the Sheikh. New York:
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Fernea, Robert A. Shaykh and Effendi: Changing Patterns of
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Gabbay, Rony. Communism and Agrarian Reform in Iraq.
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Ghareeb, Edmund. The Kurdish Question in Iraq. Syracuse:
     Syracuse University Press, 1981.

Grummond, Stephen. The Iran-Iraq War: Islam Embattled.
     New York: Praeger, 1982.

Helms, Christine Moss. Iraq, Eastern Flank of the Arab
     World. Washington: Brookings Institution, 1984.

"Interview With Saddam Husayn," Al Majallah [London],
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Iraq. Ministry of Planning. Central Statistical Organization.
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------. Ministry of Planning. Central Statistical Organization.
     Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1985. Baghdad: n.d.

Issawi, Charles. The Economic History of the Middle East,
     1800-1914. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966.

Kelidar, Abbas. The Integration of Modern Iraq. New
     York: St. Martin's Press, 1979.

Khadduri, Majid. Independent Iraq, 1932-1958. London:
     Oxford University Press, 1970.

------. Republican Iraq. London: Oxford University
     Press, 1969.

Al-Khafaji, Isam. "State Incubation of Iraqi Capitalism." Pages
     4-12 in MERIP Middle East Report, No. 142.
     September-October 1986. Washington: Middle East Research and
     Information Project.

Longrigg, Stephen Hemsley. Four Centuries of Modern
     Iraq. London: Oxford University Press, 1925.

------. Iraq, 1900 to 1950. London: Oxford University
     Press, 1953.

Longrigg, Stephen Hemsley, and Frank Stoakes. Iraq
     (Nations of the Modern World series). London: Ernest Benn,
     1958.

Marr, Phebe. The Modern History of Iraq. Boulder,
     Colorado: Westview Press, 1985.

Pelletiere, Stephen C. The Kurds: An Unstable Element in the
     Gulf. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984.

Simon, Reeva. Iraq Between the Two World Wars. New York:
     Columbia University Press, 1986.

Sluglett, Peter. Britain in Iraq, 1914-1932. London:
     Ithaca Press, 1976.

Sluglett, Peter and Marion Farouk-Sluglett. "Some Reflections on
     the Sunni/Shia Question in Iraq," British Society for
     Middle East Studies [London], 5, 1978, 79-87.

Thesiger, Wilfred. The Marsh Arabs. New York: Dutton,
     1964.

Viorst, Milton. "Iraq at War." Foreign Affairs, 65, No.
     2, Winter 1986-87, 349-65.

Warriner, Doreen. Land Reform and Development in the Middle
     East: A Study of Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. London: Oxford
     University Press for the Royal Institute of International
     Affairs, 1962.

Young, Gavin. Return to the Marshes: Life With the Marsh
     Arabs of Iraq. London: Collins, 1977.

    (Various issues of the following publications were also used
in the preparation of this chapter: Joint Publications Research
Service, Daily Report: Near East and South Asia;
Middle East Economic Digest [London]; New York
Times; Quarterly Economic Review: Iraq [London];
and Washington Post.)

Chapter 3

Adams, Martin E. "Lessons from Agrarian Reform in Iraq," Land
     Reform [Rome], No. 1, 1972, 56-64.

Alnasrawi, Abbas. Financing Economic Development in Iraq: The
     Role of Oil in a Middle Eastern Economy. New York:
     Praeger, 1967.

Badre, Albert Y. "Economic Development of Iraq." Pages 281-328 in
     Charles A. Cooper and Sidney S. Alexander (eds.),
     Economic Development and Population Growth in the Middle
     East. New York: American Elsevier Publishing, 1972.

Brown, Michael E. "The Nationalization of the Iraqi Petroleum
     Company," International Journal of Middle East
     Studies, 10, No. 1, February 1979, 107-24.

Gabbay, Rony. Communism and Agrarian Reform in Iraq.
     London: Croom Helm, 1978.

International Monetary Fund. Exchange Arrangements and
     Exchange Restrictions: Annual Report, 1987. Washington,
     1987.

Iraq. Ministry of Planning. Central Statistial Organization.
     Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1985. Baghdad: n.d.

Jalal, Ferhang. The Role of Government in the
     Industrialization of Iraq, 1950-65. London: Frank Cass,
     1972.

Khadduri, Majid. Socialist Iraq: A Study in Iraqi Politics
     since 1968. Washington: Middle East Institute, 1978.

Langley, Kathleen M. The Industrialization of Iraq
     (Harvard Middle Eastern Monograph Series, V). Cambridge:
     Harvard University Press, 1967.

Marr, Phebe. The Modern History of Iraq. Boulder,
     Colorado: Westview Press, 1985.

The Middle East and North Africa--1989. London: Europa
     Publications, 1988.

Penrose, Edith and E.F. Penrose. Iraq: International
     Relations and National Development. Boulder, Colorado:
     Westview Press, 1978.

Sayigh, Yusuf Abd Allah. The Determinants of Arab Economic
     Development. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1978.

------. The Economics of the Arab World: Development since
     1945. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1978.

United States. Department of Commerce. International Trade
     Administration. Foreign Economic Trends and Their
     Implications for the United States: Iraq. Washington:
     June 1986.

Warriner, Doreen. Land Reform and Development in the Middle
     East: A Study of Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. London: Oxford
     University Press for the Royal Institute of International
     Affairs, 1962.

    (Various issues of the following publications were also used
in preparing this chapter. An Nahar Arab Report and Memo
[Limassol, Cyprus]; Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of
Intelligence, Economic and Energy Indicators and
International Energy Statistical Review; Economist
Intelligence Unit [London], Country Report: Iraq;
General Union of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture
for the Arab World [Beirut], Arab Economic Report;
International Monetary Fund, International Financial
Statistics; Joint Publications Research Service, Daily
Report: Near East and South Asia; Middle East
[London]; Middle East Economic Digest [London];
Middle East International [London]; New York
Times; Washington Post; and Wharton Econometric
Forecasting Associates, Middle East Economic Outlook.)

Chapter 4

Abdulghani, Jasim M. Iraq and Iran: The Years of Crisis.
     Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984.

Batatu, Hanna. The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary
     Movements of Iraq: A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and
     Commercial Classes and of Its Communists, Bathists, and Free
     Officers. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
     Press, 1978.

------. "Shi'i Organizations in Iraq: Al-Da'wah al-Islamiyah and
     Al-Mujahidin." Pages 179-200 in Juan R.I. Cole and Nikki R.
     Keddie (eds.), Shi'ism and Social Protest. New
     Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.

"Chronology, July 16, 1982--October 15, 1982," Middle East
     Journal, 37, No. 1, Winter 1983, 65-88.

Ghareeb, Edmund. The Kurdish Question in Iraq. Syracuse:
     Syracuse University Press, 1981.

Halliday, Fred. "Gorbachev and the `Arab Syndrome': Soviet Policy
     in the Middle East," World Policy Journal [London],
     1987, 415-41.

------. "The USSR and the Gulf War: Moscow's Growing Concern,"
     Middle East Report, 148, September-October 1987,
     10-11.

Helms, Christine Moss. Iraq: Eastern Flank of the Arab
     World. Washington: Brookings Institution, 1984.

------. "The Iraqi Dilemma: Political Objectives Versus Military
     Strategy," American-Arab Affairs, No. 5, September
     1983, 76-85.

Hiro, Dilip. "Chronicle of the Gulf War." Pages 3-14 in MERIP
     Reports, No. 125-126. July-September 1984. Washington:
     Middle Easst Research and Information Project.

"Iraq." Pages 432-42 in The Middle East and North Africa,
     1987. London: Europa Publications, 1986.

Ismael, Tareq Y. "Ideology in Recent Iraqi Foreign Policy." Pages
     109-25 in Shirin Tahir-Kheli and Shaheen Ayubi (eds.),
     The Iran-Iraq War: New Weapons, Old Conflicts. New
     York: Praeger, 1983.

Kempe, Frederick. "Baghdad's Goal: Iraq's Aim in Gulf War Is No
     Longer to Win But to Avoid Losing," Wall Street
     Journal, August 28, 1987, 1, 14.

Khadduri, Majid. Socialist Iraq: A Study in Iraqi Politics
     Since 1968. Washington: Middle East Institute, 1978.

Marr, Phebe. The Modern History of Iraq. Boulder,
     Colorado: Westview Press 1985.

Niblock, Tim. Iraq: The Contemporary State. New York:
     St. Martin's Press, 1982.

Nonneman, Gerd. Iraq, the Gulf States, and the War: A
     Changing Relationship, 1980-1986 and Beyond. London:
     Ithaca Press, 1986.

Paxton, John. The Statesman's Yearbook, 1986-87. New
     York: St. Martin's Press, 1986.

Snyder, Jed C. "The Road to Osiraq: Baghdad's Quest for the
     Bomb," Middle East Journal, 37, No. 4, Autumn 1983,
     565-93.

"Syrians, Iraqis Bury Hatchet, but not in Iran," Iran
     Times, 17, No. 35, November 13, 1984, 15-16.

United States. Department of State. Country Reports on Human
     Rights Practices for 1985. (Report Submitted to 99th
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Viorst, Milton. "Iraq at War," Foreign Affairs, 65, No.
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Zaher, U. "The Opposition." Pages 138-76 in Committee Against
     Repression and for Democratic Rights in Iraq (CARDRI), (ed.)
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     Books, 1986.

Chapter 5

Abbas, A. "The Iraqi Armed Forces, Past and Present." Pages 203-
     26 in Committee Against Repression and for Democratic Rights
     in Iraq (CARDRI), (ed.), Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or
     Reaction? London: Zed Books, 1986.

Abdulghani, Jasim M. Iraq and Iran: The Years of Crisis.
     Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984.

Axelgard, Frederick W. (ed.) Iraq In Transition: A Political,
     Economic, and Strategic Perspective. Boulder, Colorado:
     Westview Press, 1986.

El-Azhary, M.S. "The Attitudes of the Superpowers Towards the
     Gulf War," International Affairs [London], 59, No.
     4, 1983, 609-20.

------. The Iran-Iraq War: An Historical, Economic, and
     Political Analysis. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984.

Batatu, Hanna. "Iraq's Underground Shia Movements:
     Characteristics, Causes, and Prospects," Middle East
     Journal, 35, No. 4, Autumn 1981, 578-94.

------. The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary
     Movements of Iraq: A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and
     Commercial Classes and of Its Communists, Bathists, and Free
     Officers. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.

------. "Shi'i Organizations in Iraq: Al-Da'wah al-Islamiyah and
     Al-Mujahidin." Pages 179-200 in Juan R.I. Cole, and Nikki R.
     Keddie (eds.), Shi'ism and Social Protest. New
     Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.

Bigler, C.S. "Tensions Between International Law and Strategic
     Security-- Implications of Israel's Preemptive Raid on
     Iraq's Nuclear Reactor," Virginia Journal of
     International Law, 24, No. 2, 1984, 459-511.

Bill, James A. "Islam, Politics, and Shi'ism in the Gulf,"
     Middle East Insight, 3, No. 3, January-February
     1984, 3-12.

Cordesman, Anthony H. "The Attack on the USS Stark: The
     Tragic Cost of Human Error," Armed Forces [London],
     6, No. 10, October 1987, 447-50.

------. "The Iran-Iraq War: Attrition Now, Chaos Later,"
     Armed Forces Journal, 120, No. 10, May 1983, 36-42,
     116-17.

------. "The Iran-Iraq War in 1984: An Escalating Threat to the
     Gulf and the West," Armed Forces Journal, 121, No.
     8, March 1984, 22-30, 75.

------. "Lessons of the Iran-Iraq War: The First Round,"
     Armed Forces Journal, 119, No. 8, April 1982, 32-
     47.

------. "Lessons of the Iran-Iraq War: Part Two--Tactics,
     Technology, and Training," Armed Forces Journal,
     119, No. 10, June 1982, 68-85.

Dawisha, Adeed. "Iraq and the Arab World--The Gulf War and
     After," World Today [London], 37, No. 5, May 1981,
     188-94.

Dawisha, Karen. "Moscow and the Gulf War," World Today
     [London], 37, No. 1, January 1981, 8-14.

Drysdale, Alasdair and Gerald H. Blake. The Middle East and
     North Africa: A Political Geography. London: Oxford
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Entessar, Nader. "The Kurds in Post-Revolutionary Iran and Iraq,"
     Third World Quarterly [London], 6, No. 4, October
     1984, 911-33.

Evans, David and Richard Campany. "Iran-Iraq: Bloody Tomorrows,"
     United States Naval Institute Proceedings, 111,
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Feldman, Shai. "The Bombing of Osiraq--Revisited,"
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     42.

Ghareeb, Edmund. "Iraq and Gulf Security." Pages 39-64 in Z.
     Michael Szaz (ed.), The Impact of the Iranian Events
     Upon Persian Gulf and United States Security.
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------. "Iraq: Emergent Gulf Power." Pages 197-230 in Hossein
     Amirsadeghi (ed.), The Security of the Persian
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------. The Kurdish Question in Iraq. Syracuse: Syracuse
     University Press, 1981.

Gotlieb, Yosef. "Sectarianism and the Iraqi State." Pages 153-61
     in Michael Curtis (ed.), Religion and Politics in the
     Middle East. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1981.

Gruemm, H. "Safeguards and Tamuz: Setting the Record Straight,"
     International Atomic Energy Agency Bulletin
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"Gulf War Moves Towards the Final Showdown," Middle East
     Economic Digest [London], 31, No. 51, December 19,
     1987, 32-33.

Helms, Christine Moss. Iraq: Eastern Flank of the Arab
     World. Washington: Brookings Institution, 1984.

Hemphill, Paul P.J. "The Formation of the Iraqi Army, 1921-33."
     Pages 88-110 in Abbas Kelidar (ed.), The Integration of
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International Institute for Strategic Studies. The Military
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------. The Military Balance, 1979-80. London: 1979.

------. The Military Balance, 1981-82. London: 1981.

------. The Military Balance, 1983-84. London: 1983.

------. The Military Balance, 1985-86. London: 1985.

------. The Military Balance, 1986-87. London: 1986.

------. The Military Balance, 1987-88. London: 1987.

Ismael, Tareq Y. Iraq and Iran: Roots of Conflict.
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Khadduri, Majid. "The Role of the Military in Iraqi Society."
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     Military in the Middle East. Columbus: Ohio State
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------. Socialist Iraq: A Study in Iraqi Politics Since
     1968. Washington: Middle East Institute, 1978.

Laffin, John. "The Gulf War." Pages 72-87 in John Laffin (ed.),
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     Colorado: Westview Press, 1985.

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     Repression and for Democratic Rights in Iraq (CARDRI),
     (ed.), Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction?
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     Middle East After the Israeli Invasion of Lebanon.
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     Reaction? London: Zed Books, 1986.

Iraq

Iraq - Glossary

Iraq

Autonomous Region: Governorates of As Sulaymaniyah, Dahuk, and Irbil, the Kurdish majority area. In this region--popularly known as Kurdistan--Kurdish has status of official language, and residents enjoy limited autonomy from central government.
atabeg: Turkish word that during the period of the Ottoman Empire meant governor of a province.
barrels per day: Production of crude oil and petroleum products is frequently measured in barrels per day, often abbreviated bpd or bd. A barrel is a volume measure of forty-two United States gallons. Conversion of barrels to metric tons depends on the density of a specific product. About 7.3 barrels of average crude oil, or about 7 barrels of heavy crude oil, weigh 1 metric ton. Light products, such as gasoline and kerosene, average close to eight barrels per metric ton.
currency: See dinar.
dinar (ID): Currency unit consisting of 1,000 fils or 20 dirhams. When officially introduced at the end of the British mandate (1932), the dinar was equal to, and was linked to, the British pound sterling, which at that time was equal to US$4.86. Iraqi dinar (ID) equaled US$4.86 between 1932 and 1949 and after devaluation in 1949, equaled US$2.80 between 1949 and 1971. Iraq officially uncoupled the dinar from the pound sterling as a gesture of independence in 1959, but the dinar remained at parity with the pound until the British unit of currency was again devalued in 1967. One Iraqi dinar remained equal to US$2.80 until December 1971, when major realignments of world currencies began. Upon the devaluation of the United States dollar in 1973, the Iraqi dinar appreciated to US$3.39. It remained at this level until the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War in 1980. In 1982 Iraq devalued the dinar by 5 percent, to a value equal to US$3.22, and sustained this official exchange rate without additional devaluation despite mounting debt. In early 1988, the official dinar-dollar exchange rate was still ID1 to US$3.22; however, with estimates of the nation's inflation rate ranging from 25 percent to 50 percent per year in 1985 and 1986, the dinar's real transaction value, or black market exchange rate, was far lower-- only about half the 1986 official rate.
Free Officers: Term applied retroactively to the group of young military officers that planned and carried out the July 14 Revolution in 1958.
GDP (gross domestic product): A value measure of the flow of domestic goods and services produced by an economy over a period of time, such as a year. Only output values of goods for final consumption and for intermediate production are assumed to be included in final prices. GDP is sometimes aggregated and shown at market prices, meaning that indirect taxes and subsidies are included; when these have been eliminated, the result is GDP at factor cost. The word gross indicates that deductions for depreciation of physical assets have not been made.
GNP (gross national product): GDP (q.v.) plus the net income or loss stemming from transactions with foreign countries. GNP is the broadest measurement of the output of goods and services by an economy. It can be calculated at market prices, which include indirect taxes and subsidies. Because indirect taxes and subsidies are only transfer payments, GNP is often calculated at factor cost, removing indirect taxes and subsidies.
hadith: Tradition based on the precedent of Muhammad's nondivinely revealed words that serves as one of the sources of Islamic law (sharia).
hijra: Literally to migrate, to sever relations, to leave one's tribe. Throughout the Muslim world hijra refers to the migration of Muhammad and his followers to Medina. In this sense the word has come into European languages as hegira, and it is usually, and somewhat misleadingly, translated as flight.
ID: Iraqi dinar. See dinar.
Imam: A word used in several senses. In general use and in lower case, it means the leader of congregational prayers; as such it implies no ordination or special spiritual powers beyond sufficient education to carry out this function. It is also used figuratively by many Sunni (q.v.) Muslims to mean the leader of the Islamic community. Among Shias (q.v.) the word takes on many complex meanings; in general, it indicates that particular descendent of the House of Ali ibn Abu Talib, who is believed to have been God's designated repository of the spiritual authority inherent in that line. The identity of this individual and the means of ascertaining his identity have been major issues causing divisions among Shias.
International Monetary Fund (IMF): Established along with the World Bank in 1945, the IMF is a specialized agency affiliated with the United Nations and is responsible for stabilizing international exchange rates and payments. The main business of the IMF is the provision of loans to its members (including industrialized and developing countries) when they experience balance of payments difficulties. These loans frequently carry conditions that require substantial internal economic adjustments by the recipients, most of which are developing countries.
Levant: Historically, the countries along the eastern shores of the Mediterranean.
shaykh: Leader or chief. Word of Arabic origin used to mean either a political leader or a learned religious leader. Also used as an honorific.
Shia, from Shiat Ali, the Party of Ali: A member of the smaller of the two great divisions of Islam. The Shias supported the claims of Ali and his line to presumptive right to the caliphate and to leadership of the Muslim community, and on this issue they divided from the Sunni (q.v.) in the great schism within Islam. Later schisms have produced further divisions among the Shias over the identity and the number of Imams (q.v.). Shias revere Twelve Imams, the last of whom is believed to be in hiding.
Shiite: See Shia.
Sunni (from sunna, orthodox): A member of the larger of the two great divisions of Islam. The Sunnis supported the traditional method of election to the caliphate, and they accepted the Umayyad line that began with caliph Muawiyah in 661. On this issue they divided from the Shias (q.v.) in the great schism within Islam.

Iraq